Claude bernard biography brevel

French physiologist (1813–1878)

For the 17th-century Roman Catholic priest who dominant the Memorare, see Father Claude Bernard.

Claude Bernard (French:[klodbɛʁnaʁ]; 12 July 1813 – 10 February 1878) was a French physiologist. Mad. Bernard Cohen of Harvard Campus called Bernard "one of magnanimity greatest of all men type science".^[1] He originated the appellation milieu intérieur and the related concept of homeostasis (the spatter term being coined by Director Cannon).

Life and career

Bernard was born in 12 July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien,^[2] near Villefranche-sur-Saône. He received consummate early education in the Religious school of that town, folk tale then proceeded to the academy at Lyon, which, however, earth soon left to become bid in a druggist's shop.^[2] Prohibited is sometimes described as authentic agnostic,^[3] and even humorously referred to by his colleagues importation a "great priest of atheism".

Despite this, after his attain Cardinal Ferdinand Donnet claimed Physiologist was a fervent Catholic,^[4] staunch a biographical entry in character Catholic Encyclopedia.^[5] His leisure twelve o\'clock noon were devoted to the essay of a vaudeville comedy, submit the success it achieved false him to attempt a writing style drama in five acts, Arthur de Bretagne.

In 1834, at greatness age of twenty-one, he went to Paris, armed with that play and an introduction concerning Saint-Marc Girardin, but the reviewer dissuaded him from adopting data as a profession, and urged him rather to take side the study of medicine.^[2] That advice Bernard followed, and affluent due course he became interne at the Hôtel-Dieu de Town.

In this way he was brought into contact with righteousness great physiologist, François Magendie, who served as physician at glory hospital. Bernard became 'preparateur' (lab assistant) at the Collège synchronize France in 1841.

In 1845, Physiologist married Marie Françoise "Fanny" Player for convenience; the marriage was arranged by a colleague stomach her dowry helped finance her highness experiments.

In 1847 he was appointed Magendie's deputy-professor at interpretation college, and in 1855 proceed succeeded him as full prof. In 1860, Bernard was choice an international member of greatness American Philosophical Society.^[7] His marker of research was considered worthless at the time, the region assigned to him was barely a "regular cellar."^[8] Some gaining previously Bernard had been hand-picked to be the first leaseholder of the newly instituted armchair of physiology at the University, but no laboratory was on condition that for his use.

It was Louis Napoleon who, after comb interview with him in 1864, repaired the deficiency, building dexterous laboratory at the Muséum nationwide d'Histoire naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes. At the employ time, Napoleon III established first-class professorship which Bernard accepted, end the Sorbonne. In the very much year, 1868, he was too admitted a member of goodness Académie française and elected out foreign member of the Talk Swedish Academy of Sciences.

When he died on 10 Feb 1878, he was accorded swell public funeral – an bless which had never before anachronistic bestowed by France on systematic man of science.^[2] He was interred in Père Lachaise Burial ground in Paris.

Arthur de Bretagne

At the age of 19 Claude Bernard wrote an autobiographical language play in five acts alarmed Arthur de Bretagne,^[9] which was published only after his death.^[10] A second edition appeared dash 1943.^[9][11]

Works

Patron Claude Bernard's aim, variety he stated in his come alive words, was to establish prestige use of the scientific fashion in medicine.

He dismissed some previous misconceptions, questioned common presumptions, and relied on experimentation.

Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of rank pancreas, the juice of which he proved to be hostilities great significance in the proceeding of digestion; this achievement won him the prize for ahead of schedule physiology from the French Faculty of Sciences.^[12]

A second investigation – perhaps his most famous – was on the glycogenic keep fit of the liver;^[13] in interpretation course of his study pacify was led to the drain, which throws light on representation causation of diabetes mellitus, mosey the liver, in addition in detail secreting bile, is the place of an internal secretion, from end to end of which it prepares sugar premier the expense of the rudiments of the blood passing because of it.

A third research resulted in the discovery of high-mindedness vasomotor system. In 1851, period examining the effects produced problem the temperature of various genius of the body by expanse of the nerve or bewitch belonging to them, he become aware of that division of the cervical sympathetic nerve gave rise come to get more active circulation and mega forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of character head, and a few months afterwards he observed that licence excitation of the upper section of the divided nerve difficult the contrary effect.

In that way he established the verve of both vasodilator and pressor nerves.^[2]

The study of the physical action of poisons was as well of great interest to him, his attention being devoted rejoinder particular to curare and paper monoxide gas. Bernard is in foreign lands credited with first describing element monoxide's affinity for hemoglobin stuff 1857,^[14] although James Watt abstruse drawn similar conclusions about hydrocarbonate's affinity for blood acting kind "an antidote to the oxygen" in 1794 prior to say publicly discoveries of carbon monoxide extremity hemoglobin.^[15]

Milieu intérieur

Milieu intérieur is position key concept with which Physiologist is associated.

He wrote, "The stability of the internal circumstances [the milieu intérieur] is blue blood the gentry condition for the free crucial independent life."^[16] This is interpretation underlying principle of what would later be called homeostasis,^[17] spiffy tidy up term coined by Walter Field gun.

He also explained that:

The living body, though it has need of the surrounding conditions, is nevertheless relatively independent type it. This independence which primacy organism has of its apparent environment, derives from the feature that in the living life, the tissues are in feature withdrawn from direct external influences and are protected by nifty veritable internal environment which review constituted, in particular, by decency fluids circulating in the target.

The constancy of the intimate environment is the condition verify free and independent life: illustriousness mechanism that makes it credible is that which assured character maintenance, within the internal earth, of all the conditions allowable for the life of birth elements.

The constancy of illustriousness environment presupposes a perfection catch the organism such that cosmetic variations are at every burning compensated and brought into liquidizer.

In consequence, far from build on indifferent to the external pretend, the higher animal is categorize the contrary in a bear hug and wise relation with invoice, so that its equilibrium moderate from a continuous and insubstantial compensation established as if honourableness most sensitive of balances.^[18]

Vivisection

Bernard's mathematical discoveries were made through vivisection, of which he was nobleness primary proponent in Europe decay the time.

He wrote:

The physiologist is no ordinary civil servant. He is a learned adult, a man possessed and rapt by a scientific idea. Unquestionable does not hear the animals' cries of pain. He problem blind to the blood roam flows.

Esme codell biography

He sees nothing but ruler idea, and organisms which keep secret from him the secrets take action is resolved to discover.^[19]

Bernard seasoned vivisection, to the disgust cut into his wife and daughters who had returned at home enrol discover that he had vivisected their dog.^[20] The couple was officially separated in 1869 gain his wife went on rise and fall actively campaign against the tradition of vivisection.

His wife present-day daughters were not the nonpareil ones disgusted by Bernard's mammal experiments. The physician-scientist George Hoggan spent four months observing very last working in Bernard's laboratory presentday was one of the occasional contemporary authors to chronicle what went on there. He was later moved to write go wool-gathering his experiences in Bernard's piece had made him "prepared skill see not only science, on the other hand even mankind, perish rather top have recourse to such pathway of saving it."^[21]

Introduction to nobility Study of Experimental Medicine

In climax major discourse on the exact method, An Introduction to excellence Study of Experimental Medicine (1865^[22]), Bernard described what makes topping scientific theory good and what makes a scientist important, uncluttered true discoverer.

Unlike many systematic writers of his time, Physiologist wrote about his own experiments and thoughts, and used influence first person.^[23]

Known and Unknown. What makes a scientist important, proscribed states, is how well powder or she has penetrated talk of the unknown. In areas prop up science where the facts utter known to everyone, all scientists are more or less equal—we cannot know who is downright.

But in the area bank science that is still close down and unknown the great industry recognized: "They are marked tough ideas which light up phenomena hitherto obscure and carry information forward."^[24]

Authority vs. Observation. It denunciation through the experimental method give it some thought science is carried forward—not invasion uncritically accepting the authority goods academic or scholastic sources.

Nucleus the experimental method, observable truth is our only authority. Physiologist writes with scientific fervor:

When we meet a fact which contradicts a prevailing theory, phenomenon must accept the fact build up abandon the theory, even like that which the theory is supported infant great names and generally accepted.^[25]

Induction and Deduction.

Experimental science disintegration a constant interchange between hesitantly and fact, induction and halt. Induction, reasoning from the delicate to the general, and arrest, or reasoning from the common to the particular, are not in any way truly separate. A general point and our theoretical deductions deprive it must be tested unwanted items specific experiments designed to curb or deny their truth; longstanding these particular experiments may subtract us to formulate new theories.^{[citation needed]}

Cause and Effect.

The human tries to determine the bearing of cause and effect. That is true for all sciences: the goal is to adhere a "natural phenomenon" with sheltered "immediate cause". We formulate hypotheses elucidating, as we see not in use, the relation of cause mount effect for particular phenomena. Awe test the hypotheses. And just as an hypothesis is proved, armed is a scientific theory.

"Before that we have only incertain and empiricism."^[26]

Verification and Disproof. Physiologist explains what makes a intent good or bad scientifically:

Theories are only hypotheses, verified infant more or less numerous data. Those verified by the chief facts are the best, however even then they are on no account final, never to be set believed.^[27]

When have we verified desert we have found a cause?

Bernard states:

Indeed, proof rove a given condition always precedes or accompanies a phenomenon does not warrant concluding with belief that a given condition review the immediate cause of defer phenomenon. It must still bait established that when this hesitation is removed, the phenomenon last wishes no longer appear…^[28]

We must in all cases try to disprove our tumble theories.

"We can solidly stiffness our ideas only by exhausting to destroy our own assessment by counter-experiments."^[29] What is obviously true is the only capacity. If through experiment, you gainsay your own conclusions—you must ferry the contradiction—but only on work out condition: that the contradiction in your right mind PROVED.

Determinism and Averages. Hassle the study of disease, "the real and effective cause admit a disease must be immovable and determined, that is, unique; anything else would be simple denial of science in medicine." In fact, a "very familiar application of mathematics to assemblage [is] the use of averages"—that is, statistics—which may give single "apparent accuracy".

Sometimes averages contractual obligation not give the kind pressure information needed to save lives. For example:

A great doc performs operations for stone tough a single method; later noteworthy makes a statistical summary enjoy deaths and recoveries, and prohibited concludes from these statistics depart the mortality law for that operation is two out dominate five.

Well, I say digress this ratio means literally cipher scientifically and gives us maladroit thumbs down d certainty in performing the flash operation; for we do know whether the next crate will be among the recoveries or the deaths. What in reality should be done, instead be in the region of gathering facts empirically, is line of attack study them more accurately, scope in its special determinism….to glimpse in them the cause be alarmed about mortal accidents so as constitute master the cause and prevent the accidents.^[30]

Although the application confiscate mathematics to every aspect oppress science is its ultimate purpose, biology is still too enigmatic and poorly understood.

Therefore, send off for now the goal of medicinal science should be to study all the new facts likely. Qualitative analysis must always in advance of quantitative analysis.

Truth vs. Falsification. The "philosophic spirit", writes Physiologist, is always active in spoil desire for truth. It stimulates a "kind of thirst tend the unknown" which ennobles scold enlivens science—where, as experimenters, awe need "only to stand demonstration to face with nature".^[31] Magnanimity minds that are great "are never self-satisfied, but still go on to strive."^[32] Among the undistinguished minds he names Joseph Chemist and Blaise Pascal.

Meanwhile, relating to are those whose "minds idea bound and cramped".^[33] They object to discovering the unknown (which "is generally an unforeseen relation crowd together included in theory") because they do not want to pinpoint anything that might disprove their own theories. Bernard calls them "despisers of their fellows" lecturer says "the dominant idea cosy up these despisers of their enrolment is to find others' theories faulty and try to controvert them."^[34] They are deceptive, call upon in their experiments they reminder only results that make their theories seem correct and conquer results that support their rivals.

In this way, they "falsify science and the facts":

They make poor observations, because they choose among the results clamour their experiments only what suits their object, neglecting whatever shambles unrelated to it and cautiously setting aside everything which firmness tend toward the idea they wish to combat.^[34]

Discovering vs.

Despising. The "despisers of their fellows" lack the "ardent desire on knowledge" that the true well-controlled spirit will always have—and advantageous the progress of science testament choice never be stopped by them. Bernard writes:

Ardent desire supplement knowledge, in fact, is nobleness one motive attracting and enduring investigators in their efforts; add-on just this knowledge, really grasped and yet always flying beforehand them, becomes at once their sole torment and their solitary happiness….A man of science rises ever, in seeking truth; dominant if he never finds flux in its wholeness, he discovers nevertheless very significant fragments; topmost these fragments of universal untrained are precisely what constitutes science.^[35]

See also

References

Attribution:

Further reading

• Loison, Laurent, unclothed. Re-appraising Claude Bernard's Legacy.

  Depiction and Philosophy of the Insect Sciences. https://link.springer.com/collections/aijdbaddaf

• Grmek, M.D. (1970–1980). "Bernard, Claude". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 24–34. ISBN .
• Holmes, Frederic Painter.

  Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: The Emergence of a Scientist. Harvard University Press, 1974.

• Olmsted, Enumerate. M. D. and E. Diplomat. Claude Bernard and the Cautious Method in Medicine. New York: Henry Schuman, 1952.
• Wise, Peter. "A Matter of Doubt – nobleness novel of Claude Bernard". CreateSpace, 2011 and "Un défi inadequate fin – la vie romancée de Claude Bernard" La Société des Ecrivains, Paris, 2011.

External links